Irrigation Systems and Equipment Used for Agriculture in Tasmania

Tasmania is a principally agricultural area and is therefrom very much in need of various irrigation systems and equipment for agriculture. Irrigation is the artificial form of water on soil. For agricultural purposes, irrigators are used in Tasmania to arrange proper water supply for crops, protecting crops against frost, minimizing weed growth in crop fields and assisting in the prevention of soil consolidation.

There are various systems cognate as surface, percolate, sprinkler, centre pivot, lateral move, sub - irrigation and, of course, guidebook irrigation through human labor. The differences among these irrigation systems disinformation in the way in water is being distributed. In Tasmania, the more modern systems are available for agricultural concerns.

One of the oldest irrigation systems is surface irrigation which uses gravity aided by canals and dikes to guide water from a higher area toward specific lower areas. This is also often called flood irrigation since it can flood the areas being irrigated, as in the case of rice fields and rice terraces.

Drip irrigation or trickle irrigation concentrates the delivery of water to the roots of the crops, by the drop. This saves water because there is little, if any, runoff and evaporation. It can be done in very high - tech methods involving computerization although there are labor - intensive low - tech methods, as well.

Sprinkler, also called overhead irrigation, uses sprinklers, sprays or guns attached to an elevated structure over crops. Solid - set sprinkler systems use permanent structures in specific areas of the field, to which water is fed from a pump set through a system of pipes or hard hoses. Travelling irrigator systems differ from solid - set systems in that they are mounted on wheeled structures that could be moved through the field. Also considered a type of sprinkler irrigation system is the centre pivot irrigation system. This system has horizontal pipes to which sprinklers are attached. The set - up moves in a circular pattern from a pivot in the center to water a wide circular area. The central pivot also provides water to the sprinklers. Such centre pivot systems are widely used in Tasmania.

The North West Coast of Tasmania grows vegetables for processing and for the fresh market as well as tulips. The North and North East Coast of Tasmania grow vegetables for processing and has vineyards. The most common irrigation systems are travelling guns, centre pivots, linears, portable sprinkler systems and some usage of drip irrigation. The Central area of Tasmania grows potatoes and cereals. The most common irrigation systems are travelling guns, centre pivots and some surface irrigation. The South East area of Tasmania grows vegetables for the fresh market, specifically leafy greens for salads, and late season berries and stonefuit. The most common irrigation systems are travelling guns, centre pivots, mini sprinklers and drip irrigation.

For agricultural concerns, it would be crucial to have the most appropriate and efficient systems and equipment. Expert and experienced advice is needed in choosing the most fitting machinery and design for agriculture. Proper maintenance and repair would be an ongoing requirement, as well. In Tasmania, one of the most reliable sources would be Van Diemen ' s Land Irrigation Pty Ltd.

Van Diemen ' s Land Irrigation Pty. Ltd.

Address: 228 Charles Street

Launceston TAS 7250

Australia

Phone: 0363345600

Mobile nos.: 0408131692 ( Sales Manager ) 0419105900 ( Josh Fletcher )

Fax no.: 0363345880

Email:

Website: www. vdlirrigation. com. au

Mango Destinations

Are you planning to book a sprint with Mango Airways for business or tourism? With several great South African destinations on approach, Mango offers convenience and distinguished fares that will combine to make your business trip or holiday enjoyable and stress - free.

Mango currently flies from OR Tambo International Airport in Johannesburg to Durban, Bloemfontein and Cloak Vicinity. There is also a service to Pelisse Corner from Lanseria Airport in the north of Johannesburg. For those travellers who will be flying with Mango in the near future, or are planning a trip and exploring clashing airline options, we have provided a brief overview of the destinations that may be reached with Mango Airways

Mango destinations in South Africa

Johannesburg

South Africas largest city and the economic locus of the country, Johannesburg is home to some of the countrys biggest banking and corporate center. A city of over 5 million people, Johannesburg is bustling with life and the many streets of the city of gold are often busy even at midnight! If you are a commercial traveller, you will find Johannesburg the perfect place to do business.

Once the days business is done, Johannesburg offers a wide range of dining and entertainment options. From shopping malls that offer a wide range of products and services to the many dining establishments that may be found throughout the city, Johannesburg caters to all tastes, ages, and budgets.

Several world - class casino complexes including the famous Montecasino provide 24 hour entertainment, while an array of luxurious hotels and intimate B&Bs stand ready to welcome travellers to the city of Johannesburg. The newly completed Gautrain makes visiting various parts of the city easily and quickly, with the Sandton CBD, the trendy suburb of Rosebank and the nearby city of Pretoria easily accessible.

Cape Town

The city of Cape Town is the oldest in South Africa, and is beautifully located and steeped in history. A favourite destination for international tourists and high - budget film shoots, the old world charm and elegance of the Mother Citys colonial legacy blends effortlessly with the buzz of a modern African city. From the markets and small stores in the recently revamped yet historic city centre, where a number of fine hotels are located within walking distance of tourist attractions, visitors can explore the beauty of Cape Town at their own pace.

The new MyCiti bus network connects Cape Town International airport with the city centre bus station. From here visitors can travel to the V&A Waterfront, ride the scenic inner - city bus route, or travel to Cape Towns northern suburbs including Blouberg Strand.

Mango Flights to Durban

With beautiful beaches, a warm sea and a pleasant tropical climate the city of Durban is a favourite with local and international tourists. Visitors who have enjoyed a day at the beach can experience the mix of cultures that makes Durban so unique. With African, Indian and European people having made their home in this vibrant city for generations, the diversity of cultures, cuisines and local flavours make Durban a city worth visiting!

Bloemfontein

Nestled in the heart of South Africa, some 600 km from Johannesburg in the central Free State province, Bloemfontein is a centre of agriculture, higher education and a popular destination for visitors to the Free State.

After taking in the historic sites of the city, visitors can enjoy a relaxing afternoon at the beautiful botanical gardens, or dine at one of the citys famous steakhouses that serve up food that is fit for a king! The hospitable local people add to the charm of this quiet and tranquil city.

No - till Farming - Making Agriculture A Profitable Business

Tilling is an ancient farming practice. Few decades before, scientists initiate that no - till farming can deliver better yields if done properly. The findings were astonishing to all as tilling farming was the tradition in most of the countries and widespread tilling was considered essential for better crop. Brand-new research studies have confirmed that no - tilling method certainly has extra edge over habitual farming method. It is confessed as zip - till farming also.

The proven benefits of this new farming style are: Less efforts, erosion control, better return, environment friendliness, reduction in green gases, improvement in living style and less input in terms fertilizers and water etc. Reports confirm that in between 1987 to 2008, zero - till method witnessed 74 times increase in social acceptance in only Latin America. This assessment was sufficient to judge the increasing trend of this method worldwide. The experience of 105 Million hectare farming land owners cant be wrong. According to a survey report, more than 49. 6 million hectare land was under zero - tilling farming.

As the popularity of this new farming method is increasing worldwide, we are getting the proof of more benefits. Improved water level; Reduced usage of heavy machinery; Time savings; Fuel savings; Reduction in labor cost; Reduction in air pollution; Better wildlife; Better soil filth and Reduced soil compaction etc are other significant benefits that come directly or indirectly in the pocket of farm owners. Soil loses much of its carbon content during tilling. It releases carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere. Increased level of CO2 in atmosphere is associated with global warming.

Though the benefits have been realized and proved scientifically worldwide but even than many farm owners hitch in making a switch over to this new technique. Still, only 5 percent of world ' s cultivated cropland is under no - till farming. In African and Asian countries no - till farming is at the lowest level. The major reason for this drawback is the absence of adequate financial support to farmers. It is natural to doubt a relatively new method that apparently doesnt support traditional beliefs. As the governments too are concerned to increase agricultural yields, they encourage the farm owners to accept this new way of farming. Agriculture research centers offer complete help at all the fronts almost free of cost. Many farmers feel slight drop in very first crop after adopting no - till farming practice but soon difference comes back into the pockets in the form of multidimensional benefits.

Making Your First Investment in the Forex Market

The foreign exchange market ( Forex ) offers many advantages to investors but you need to know where to enter on. Forex is not effortless, though, so you ' ll need some knowledge to make thoughtful investment decisions and although it is relatively easily done to start trading on the Forex, there are risks involved. The welfare of today ' s modern age is information available at your finger tips in the mode of ebooks, blogs, trading systems and online brokers. Your first move as a beginner should be to find out as much as possible about the market before risking any money.

When you are ready to proceed, you should first look for a reputable broker. Forex traders usually require a broker to handle transactions. A reputable broker will be registered as a Futures Commission Merchant ( FCM ) with the Commodity Futures Trading Commission ( CFTC ) as protection against fraud and abusive trade practices.

Next, open a Forex account. You will need to fill out a simple form and providing the necessary identification. The form includes a margin agreement which states that the broker may interfere with any trade deemed to be too risky. This is to protect the interests of the broker, since most trades are done using the broker ' s money.

Once your account has been established, you can fund it and begin trading. Many brokers offer a variety of accounts to suit the needs of individual investors. Mini accounts allow you to get involved in Forex trading if your access to large amounts of capital is limited. Trades are technically commission - free, meaning that you can make many trades in one day without worrying about incurring high brokerage fees. However, its important to keep in mind that Forex involves paying a spread which could make the cost of high volume trading pricey. Brokers make their money on the spread or the difference between bids and ask prices.

Almost every broker operates on the Internet. Once your account is set up, you can access it from any computer just by entering your account name and password. Each broker has its own set of software tools. Real - time quotes, news feeds, technical analyses and charts, and profit - and - loss analyses are some of the features you can expect to see on most online brokers ' websites.

Forex investing is one of the most potentially rewarding types of investments available. Even small changes in the market can result in substantial profits because of the large amount of money involved in each transaction, commonly referred to as leverage. Individual investors should understand that leverage acts as a double edge sword meaning it can work both for and against you. There are a number of software tools available to help investors minimize losses that occur in any type of investment rather its Forex or Stocks. While there is no guarantee that you will actually make money trading Forex, its extremely important to learn about these tools as they can act as a vital component to your trading account and overall success.

Medicinal Importance of Aegle Marmelos ( Bael )

Medicinal Importance of Aegle Marmelos ( Bael ) Dr. Anshu Tyagi, Dr. Manoj Kumar & Dr. Padma Singh Department of Microbiology, Kanya Gurukul Mahavidhyalay, Department of Regulation, Gurukul Kangri University, Hardwar - 249407, India

Abstract

Aegle marmelos commonly confessed as - bilwa - or - bael -, is highly heirloom plant for its appropriate aroma and medicinal value. The oil and dry fruit powder is an important export apparatus from India giving a handsome amount of foreign earning to the country. A digit of chemical constituents from otherwise parts of plant have been extracted like aegelin marmelosin, coumarin, - sitosterol and alkaloids. The plant is a rich source of amino tart, galactose &fatty sour. The compound isolated from plant shine a variance of pharmacological bustle.

Key words: Aegle marmelos, Bael or Bilwa, Rutaceae, Aegelin, Alkaloids

Introduction Aegle marmelos correa ( family - Rutaceae ) commonly admitted as bilwa or bael is a highly valuable plant for its aroma & its medicinal properties. It is a extensively planted near Hindu temples for its leaves and wood which are repeatedly used for worship. Bael is one of the most important plant used in the indigenous system of medicine. the fruit of particular is regularly used for belly related ailments Its fruit are table as well as admitted drug for the management of diseases of gastrointestinal tract ( GIT ). Leaves are also useful in healing various diseases. This review depicts general scale, phytochemistry, biological properties and medicinal uses of bael plant.

Composition

Aegle marmelos is a small or means sized deciduous, slender and reminiscent tree. It is found widely throughout the Indian peninsula and in the Srilanka, Burma and in most of the South Asian countries. According to Airy Shaw ( 1973 ) three sort are originate in the tropical Asia and one in tropical West Africa. One one genre reported to grow in India. [1]. It grows uncultivated and plant halfway throughout in India up to height of 5000 feet. It exceptionally occurs along the Himalayan region, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and in the jungle of Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh also. The plant is chiefly cultivated for its redolent shape and medicinal properties. it is somewhere propagated by its seeds which germinate freely. a spacing of approx 5 - 7 meter is ideal for the planting of this plant. [22, 25, 28, 29]

Widening and Ecology

History of aggrandizement: Mention of Aegle marmelos has been construct in writings dating back to 800 B. C. It is cultivated throughout India, mainly in church gardens, being of its status as a religious tree; also in Pakistan and Northern Malaysia, the drier areas of java, and to a limited extent on Northern Luzon in the Philippine Islands where it first fruited in 1914. It is grown in some Egyptian gardens, and in Surinam and Trinidad. Seeds were sent from Lahore in 1909. Specimens have been maintained in citrus collections in Florida and in agriculture research stations but the tree has never been grown for its fruit in this state. Aegle marmelos fruit was resorted to by the Portuguese in the East Indies in the 1500 ' s and by the British colonials in later times as a means of unsteady diarrhea and dysentery. Natural Habitat: The tree grows natural in dry forests on hills and plains of central and southern India and Burma, Pakistan and Bangladesh, also in mixed deciduous and dry dipterocarp forests. Aegle marmelos is a subtropical style. In the Punjab, it grows up to an topper of 1, 200m where the temperature rises to 48. 89C in the shade in summer and descends to - 6. 67deg C in the winter, and prolonged droughts materialize. It will not fruit where there is no long, dry season, as in Southern Malaysia. Biophysical Limits Climax up to 1200 m miserly register temperature: - 6 - 48C. Rainfall Soil type: Aegle marmelos is verbal to do best on rich, well flagging soil, but it has grown well and fruited on the oolitic limestone of Southern Florida. It also grows well in fenny, alkaline or rigid soils having pH area from 5to 8. In India it has the reputation of thriving where other fruit trees cannot push on. According to reproductive biology in India flowering occurs in April and May immediately closest the new leaves surface and the fruit ripens in 10 - 11 months from bloom - Trudge to June of the following year.

Propagation and Management

Propagation Methods: Aegle marmelos is commonly grown from seed in nurseries and transplanted into the field. seedlings manifestation great variation in configuration, size, humor of rind, number, and quality of pulp and character of seeds. The kick ranges from disagreeable to pleasant. Since, superior type must be multifold vegetatively. Empirical curtain - budding onto related species of afraegle and onto swinglea glutinosa Merr. has been successful. Occasionally, air - layers or root cuttings have been used for propagation.

Tree Management: The tree has no exacting cultural requirements, doing well with a minimum of fertilizer and irrigation. The spacing in Orchards 6 - 9 m between trees. Seedlings begin to bear in 6 to 7 years, Vegetatively propagated trees in 5 years. Full production is reached in 15 years. Normally, the fruit is harvested when yellowish - green and kept for 8 days while it loses its green tint. Then the stem readily separates from the fruit. A tree may yield as many as 800 fruits in a season but an average crop is 150 - 200, or, in the better cultivars, up to 400. [17, 40]

Photochemistry:

Basically the ripe fruits are very important part in the view of medicinal uses and have lots of variation in composition. The ripe fruits are woody, large, and spherical up to 20 c. m. in dia., pear shaped or oblong with more or less slightly tuberculate or smooth surface. In general peripheral part just with in the rind, is fleshy and thick, and has a very pleasant resinous odour. The walls separating the chambers have a light yellow tint which becomes yellowish brown on exposure, and have a warm, acrid bitter taste. chambers present in pulp are full of amber or honey coloured vicious, very sticky or glutinous translucent pulp which is sweet and feebly aromatic. [2] The first preliminary chemical examination on Aegle marmelos was carried out by Dikshit & Dutt who isolated marmelosin compound. from the fruit. Accordingly in 100 gm of fruit pulp lots of contents are there as given below. It contains 61. 5 % moisture, 0. 3 % fat, 1. 8 % protein, 2. 9 % fibre, 85mg calcium, 50mg phosphorus, 0. 6mg iron, 2mg vitamin - c, 0. 13mg thiamine, 1. 2 mg riboflavin, 0. 14mg niacin, 18. 7 mg oxalic acid,. 55ug carotene, 137Kcal calorific value[11, 15]. Aegelin along with skimmianine isolated from the leaves of the plants Another compound? - sitosterol was also isolated from leaves. The heartwood contains - sitosterol, two unidentified alkaloids and two unknown compounds aurapten, marmerin, umbelliferone, and lupeol. Dictamine, pyroligenous acid are the contents of heartwood. The new alkaloids O - isopentenyl halfordinol, 1 - phenyl 7 - hydroxytetra hydroquinozoline - 4 - one, N - 2 ethoxy - 2 ( 4 - methoxy phenyl ) ethylcinnamide, N - 2methoxy - 2 - ( 4 - 3, 3 dimethylallyloxy ) ethyl cinnamide, N - 2 methoxy - 2 - ( 4methoxyphenyl ) ethylcinnamide were isolated from the leaves[24]. From the leaves rutin, flavan - 3 - ols, anthrocyanins, flavone glycosides and tannins have been reported from the leaves. Several known coumarins, viz umbelliferone, xanthotoxin, imperatorin and aurapten from the stem bark were isolated in the recent researches. Xanthotoxin and 6 - 7 dimethoxycoumarin, scopoletin, umbelliferone and 6 - 7, epoxyauraptene isolated from root. [11, 15] Bhattacharya and Jash isolated 6 ' - 7 ' epoxyauraptene, a coumarin from root. The fruit also contains a number of coumarins, amino acids, arabinose, galactose, D - galactouronic acid and rhammnose, alkaloids, sterols, essential oils alloimperatorin, marmelosin, identical with imperatorin and - sitosterol, It contains marmelide, an isomer of imperatorin, which exhibits tyrosinase accelerating and tryptophan pyrrolase inhibiting effect in Bufo melanosticus. The presence of psoralen, a powerful germination inhibitor and tannic acid is also reported. [6] The ripe fruits posses xanthotoxal, scoparone, scopoletin, umbelliferone, marmesin, skimmin, and b - sitosterol. the fruit and rind yield, respectively 7 - 9 and 18 - 22 % tannin. The fruit yield 2 % of dried, water soluble gum. on hydrolysis, the gum contents and their composition are mentioned in the following data - galactose20. 4 %, arabinose 10. 7 % D - galactouronic acid 25. 2 %, rhamnose in traces where as the roots possess xanthotoxin, 6 - 7 di - o - mecoumarin, scopoletin, tembamide, umbelliferone, marmesin, marmin, and skimmianine.. [11] The gummy substance surrounding the seeds serves as a good adhesive and is added to water paints to improve strength and brilliancy. It is move abundant in young fruits. The yellow dye is extracted from the rind of unripe fruits. Imperatorin, alloimperatorin, alloimperatorinmethyl ether, xanthotoxol, scoparone, scopoletin, umbelliferone, skimmin, and psoralen, from the fruit. and umbelliferone, xanthotoxol, scoparone, xanthotoxin, isoimperatorin, isopimpinellin, bergaptenosthol, and auraptin from fruit pericarp have reported by several scientist. endogenous gibberelin - A. A3, qnd A9 were isolated from the developing fruits. One of the compound known as 2 - ( 2 - hydroxy - 4methoxyphenyl ) vinyl acetate have been also isolated from heartwood. [5] Two new aromatic compounds 1 - 5 dihydroxy - 6 - methoxy - 2 - methylanthraquinonehave been isolated from the stem bark[2]. The seeds yield an oil ( 34. 4 % on dry basis ) having fatty acid in contents in the composition viz palmitic acid - 16. 6 %, stearic acid - 8. 8 %, oleic acid - 30. 5 % linoleic acid 8. 1 %. In a study conducted in I. C. A. R., it is reported that the fruit of Aegle marmelos is superior to mango in possessing higher percentage of carbohydrate, protein, fat, soluble fiber, minerals vitamin B and vitamin C. [27] There is a variation in the percentage and number of chemical constituents in different reports. this may be due to existence of different chemical races or the analysis methodology employed. [28, 29]

Biological properties:

The plant has been evidently used in the Ayurvedic system of medicines from time immemorial. A large number of compounds are isolated from different parts of plant. Lots of studies have been done in foreign countries. Acton and Notes describes important features of bael fruit in their book - Dysenteries of India -. Accordingly Henry published his research in - Transaction of royal society for tropical medicine and hygiene - about Aegle marmelos. The antiprotozoal and antifungal activity of leaves was also reported. [16] The therapeutic potential of root and bark studied for its hypoglycemic activity. [41, 21]. The seed oil was found effective on different strains of Vibrios and inhibited the growth [5]. Leaf extract of Aegle marmelos exhibited 100 % fungi toxicity against Rhizoctonia solani [31]. Fixed oil from seeds of Aegle marmelos and unsaponifiable portion of oil were found to be active against Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria. [4]. The fixed oil from seeds of Aegle marmelos exhibited mild to moderate antibacterial activity against test organisms but did not inhibit the growth of test fungi. [37] In same context antifungal activity of unsaponifiable matter was better than that of the fixed oil. [4]. Whereas according to another data the unsaponifiable matter of the oil however, exhibited remarkable activity against the test bacteria and inhibited the growth of test fungi. [37] Accordingly antimicrobial activity of Aegle marmelos leaf extract, on exposure of germicidal UV light has been discussed. [39]. Ethanol extract of plant was found to be effective against Curvularia lunata, Aspergillus niger, and Rhizopus nodulans. [32]. In addition patients suffering from diarrhea predominant irritable bowel syndrome showed significantly greater improvement in symptoms when given an indigenous preparation containing Aegle marmelos Marmelosin, isolated from bael plant has been reported to have anti helminthic and antibacterial activity. [15, 11]Volatile oil of Aegle marmelos shows potant fungicides against broad spectrum of fungi. [13]. The effect of methanol extract of Aegle marmelos leaves on mycelial growth and sclerotium formation in Sclerotium rolfsii was studied. [26]. The indigenous uses of the leaves for the treatment of diabetes mellitus. [34] The seeds of plant protect oral administration of luvangetin against multiple models of gastric ulceration in rodents. According to another study essential oil isolated from leaves shows antifungal activity. [28]. In another study the effect of leaf extract of Aegle marmelos on biotransformation enzyme system and protection against free radical mediated damage in mice. [38].. Methanolic extract of unripe fruit decreased castor oil induced diarrhea possibly due to presence of tannin and mucilaginous substances. [34]. Oral administration of water extract of fruits show hypoglycemic effect. [20]. Extract from Aegle marmelos was antiproliferative on human breast cancer cell lines Extract also inhibit the proliferation of transplanted ehrichascites carcinoma in mice. [18] The antifungal activity of essential oil isolated from leaves of bael plant evaluated using spore germination assay. The oil exhibited variable efficacy against different fungal isolates and 100 % inhibition of spore germination of all the fungi tested was observed at 500ppm. [14]

Medicinal uses:

A study was also carried out on a preliminary chemical examination of the root, bark, leaf, fruit and seed [10] The leaves are astringent, digestive, laxative, and febrifuge, when fresh removes vata and kapha. It also useful in opthalmia, deafness, and inflammations. Fresh juice dilution is praised in catarrh and feverishness. The fresh juice of leaves is given, with addition of black pepper, in anasarea, with costiveness and jaundice. In external inflammations the juice of leaves is given internally to remove the supposed derangement of humans. The expressed juice of leaves is used in opthalmia and other eye affections. In Malabar a decoction of leaves is valued in asthmatic complaints. A hot poultice to head is used in delirium of fevers. [15, 22] The flowers allay thirst and vomiting. It is also useful in dysentery. Water distilled from flowers, is said to be alexipharmic. The ripe fruit is hot and dry, tonic, restorative, astringent, laxative good for the heart and the brain, bad for liver and chest. [Yunani ]. The unripe fruit is oily bitter, acrid, sour, tasty but its very difficult to digest, appetizer binding, cures dysentery and helpful in removal of pain. The oil is hot and cures vata. The ripe fruit is acrid bitter, sweet, appetizer, febrifuge, causes biliousness and tridosha removes vata and kapha. It is also play a very important role for heart diseases. [Ayurveda ]. [14] In the Konkan small unripe fruit is given with fennel seeds and ginger in decoction for piles. The ripe fruit is sweet aromatic and cooling agent as it made into a morning sherbet. It is pleasantly laxative and a good simple cure for dyspepsia. The dried ripe pulp is an astringent and used in dysentery also. The unripe fruit is cut up and sun dried and in this form it is sold in market in dried whole or broken slices. It is regarded as astringent, digestive, and stomachic. It is prescribed in diarrhea and dysentery often proving effectual in chronic cases, after all other medicines have failed. It seems especially useful in chronic diarrhea, a simple change in the hours of meal and an alteration in ordinary diet, combined with bael fruit will almost universally succeed. [22] In a Cambodia fruit is prescribed in tuberculosis and hepatitis. a liquid extract of fruit was tried in several cases of dysentery and diarrhea and found to be generally useful. A syrup of the pulp of this fruit was administered to a few cases of chronic enteritis. The patients derived benefits after long continuous use. Root and bark is also very important part in the view of medicinal uses. The root bark is sometimes made into a decoction and used in cure of intermittent fever. It constitutes an ingredient in the dashamul or ten roots. It is used on Malabar coast in hypochondriasis, melancholia and palpitation of the heart. The root is sweet, cures fever due to tridosha pain in the abdomen, palpitations of the heart and urinary troubles. It removes vata, pitta and kapha. It was suggested that root bark is effective for heart diseases. [19]. A decoction of the root of Aegle marmelos is given with sugar and fried rice for checking diarrhea and gastric irritability in infants. The root, leaves and bark are prescribed as an antidote to snake venom [Sushruta, Vaghata, Bapat]. [7]

References

1. Airy shaw, H. K. [1973]. A dictionary of the flowering plants and ferns. 8th edition Cambridge university press, Cambridge. 2. Aiyer, V. N., Narayanan, V., Seshadri, I. R. and Vyadeeswaran, S. [1973 ]. Chemical components of some Indian medicinal plants. Indian journal of Chemistry, pp. 89 - 90.

3. Asolkar, C. V., Kakkar, K. K. and Chakre, O. J. [1992]. Second supplement to glossary of Indian medicinal plants with active principles. Part - I ( A - K ). Publication and Information directorate, C. S. I. R., New Delhi.

4. Banerjee, A. K.. Kaul, V. K., and Nigam, S. S. [1983]Chemical, microbial and antihelminthic examination of the seeds of Aegle marmelos correa. Indian drugs 21 ( 5 ) pp. 217 - 218.

5. Banerjee, N. and Kumar, R. [1980] Studies on the seed oil of Aegle marmelos and its effect on some bacterial species. Journal of inst. Chemistry, Calcutta part - 2, 52, pp. 59 - 60.

6. Bhattacharya, P. and Jash, S. S. [1989]. 6 ', 7 ' - epioxyauraptene - a coumerin from Aegle marmelos. Jornal of Indian chemical society. 66 ( 6 ) pp. 424 - 425.

7. Bhrmavarchas[2003], Ayurveda ka pran - vanaspati vigyan, 3rd edition, published by Vedmata gayatri trust, Shantikunj, Hardwar. pp38 - 39.

8. Chatterjee, A., Pakrashi, S. C., [1994]. The treatise on Indian medicinal plants. Volume - 3, Publication and Information directorate, C. S. I. R. New Delhi

9. Das, B., Das, R. [1995]Medicinal properties and chemical constituents of Aegle marmelos correa. Indian drugs 32 ( 3 ), pp. 93

10. Dikshit and Dutt[1930]. A preliminary chemical examination of the root, bark, leaf, fruit and seed. Journal of Indian chemical society.

11. Dikshit and Dutt[1932]. A preliminary chemical examination of Aegle marmelos. Journal of Indian chemical society., 9, pp. 271. 12. Ghose, S. C., [1950]. Drugs of Hindustan. Hahniman Publishing House, New Delhi. 13. Gupta, L. N., Jha, C. B.,. [2006] Effect of bilwa patra swarasa on gastrointestinal tract. Sacchitra Ayurveda, pp47 - 49.

14. Gupta, L. N., Jha, C. B., andSharma, R. K.. [2006] Effect of bilwa phala majja churna on gastrointestinal tract. Sacchitra Ayurveda, pp. 447 - 451.

15. Gupta, L. N., Jha, C. B. and Sharma, R. K. [2006]. Bilwa, chemical constituents and medicinal properties. Sacchitra Ayurveda, pp. 290 - 294.

16. Henry &Brown[1924]. Cited in Ghose[1950].

17. Hiremarh, I. G., Ahn, Y. J. and Kim Soon - II. [1996]. Insecticidal activity of Indian plant extracts against Nillaparvata lugens ( Homoptera Delphacidae ). App. Entomol. Zool. 32 ( 1 ): 159 - 166.

18. Jagetia, G. C., Venkatesh, P., Baliga, M. S. [2005]. Aegle marmelos correa Inhibits ascites carcinoma in mice. Biological and pharmaceutical bulletin, 28, pp. 58 - 64.

19. Kakiuchi, N., Senaratne, S. L., Huang, X. W.. Yang, M., Hattori, U. Pilapitiya. &Namba, T. [1991]. Effects of constituents of bel on spontaneous beating and calcium paradox of myocardial cells. Planta Medica 57. ( 1 ) pp. 43 - 46.

20. Kamalakkannan, N. and Prince, P. S. M. [2003]. Hypoglycaemic effect of water extracts of Aegle marmelos correa fruits in streptozotocin diabetic rats. Journal of ethnopharmocology, 87, pp. 207 - 210.

21. Karunanayake, E. H., Welihinda, S. R., Sirumanne & Sinha D. G. [1984]. Oral hypoglycaemic activity of some medicinal plants of Sri Lanka. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 11 ( 2 ) pp. 223 - 231.

22. Kaushik, P. and Dhiman, A. [2005]. Medicinal plants and raw drugs of India. pp149 - 151. published in Dehradun.

23. Kirtikar, K. R. and Basu, B. D. [1935]Indian medicinal plants, volume - 1 M / S Bishen Singh, new connaught Place, Dehradun pp. 499 - 502.

24. Manandhan, M. D., Shoeb, A., Kapil, R. S., Popli, S. P.. [1978]. New alkaloids from Aegle marmelos. Phytochemistry, 17, pp. 1814 - 1815.

25. Nadkarni, K. M. [1976] ( Reprint of 1954 edition ) Indian material medica. 2 - volume, 3rd edition. Revised by A. K. Nadkarni. Popular prakashan pvt. ltd., Bombay.

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Correspondence Address

Dr. Anshu Tyagi D / o Sh. Shashi Bhushan Department of Chemistry Gurukul kangri university Hardwar - 249404. Uttranchal E - mail:

Nutrient Pollution - Consequences In Water - Causes And Effects

Nutrient pollution refers to a model of pollution in which nutrients, regularly nitrogen and phosphorus, are present in a high concentration that is damaging to ecosystems. Nutrient pollution is primarily a problem in aquatic ecosystems, equaling as streams, rivers, rewards, and lakes. It is particularly an issue of concern in lakes and relatively closed or contained tributes, like the Chesapeake bay. Nutrient pollution is caused primarily by the over - use of fertilizers in agriculture, or by away from animal farming operations. The negative effects of this pollution are to disrupt, damage, or nuke aquatic ecosystems, which regularly can have negative environmental impacts, by destroying fishing industries.

This article gives a brief overview of nutrient pollution, including its causes in agriculture and its effects on waterways and fishing industries. The article concludes with some concrete recommendations of what can be done to prevent this type of pollution, both for farmers, and for concerned clan.

How does nutrient pollution work?

Nutrients compatible as nitrogen and phosphorus are essential for all living ecosystems. Phosphorus is present in soils, and typically originates from the underlying rock or geologic substrates. Nitrogen is present in the mood, but unrivaled enters the ecosystem through a conglomerate process of nitrogen fixation, which is carried out primarily by certain plants and bacteria. The growth of plants are limited by the availability of nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients, so in agriculture, the yield of crops can often be improved by applying fertilizers containing these nutrients.

Plants, however, will only utilize a certain amount of nutrients; once they have as much as they need, they are then limited by other factors, like the availability of sun or water, and the remainder of the nutrients will remain in the soil, where it leeches out when it rains, and runs off into the water table or nearby streams.

Although nutrients are beneficial to some plants, an overabundance of nutrients can cause problems in aquatic ecosystems, primarily because it can cause algal blooms. Algae, which are fast - growing microorganisms or simple plants, respond to the influx of nutrients by growing rapidly. The new growth can choke out existing plants, cloud the water, and clog waterways. When the algae begin to die, the process uses up dissolved oxygen, and if the algal bloom was big enough, it can create a dead zone. This process is called eutrophication. Eutrophication is primarily an issue in lakes and closed bodies of water, but it also happens in rivers and bays as well. Even in areas where eutrophication does not happen, nutrients can still harm and disrupt ecosystems by altering the balance of the various species.

Impact on the fishing industry:

The issue of pollution caused by runoff of nutrients from agriculture is not just an issue of protecting the environment. This form of pollution has immediate and tangible economic impacts. When an aquatic ecosystem is disrupted, the populations of all animals, including fish, crabs, oysters, and other shellfish, are disrupted. In many cases, such as in the Chesapeake bay, whole fishing industries have been destroyed. Whole towns, reliant on fishing for their livelihood, have been driven to economic ruin as a result of the waning populations of fish, caused in part by nutrient pollution, combined with other types of agricultural and industrial pollution.

Causes of nutrient pollution:

The overwhelming majority of cases of nutrient pollution are caused by runoff from agriculture. The main two culprits are the over - use of fertilizer by farming operations growing crops, and the runoff of waste from animal farming operations, such as pig farms or chicken farms.

Nutrient runoff is a wasted resource:

Because nutrients are valuable inputs into the agricultural process, nutrient pollution involves unnecessary waste, waste of inputs, or a wasted resource which is being discarded. In sustainable farming practices, the farmer will apply only the amount of fertilizer that is needed, and the nutrients will be taken up completely by the crops being grown. In sustainable production of animals, the animal waste will be gathered and used as fertilizer for other crops. For example, traditional farming methods use manure from cows and large animals, as well as chicken and pig waste, to fertilize other crops.

A point for hope:

This last realization is a point for hope. Nutrient pollution is not necessary; it represents an inefficiency. It is a problem that can be solved. But there are other ways in which people can prevent or minimize the effects of this form of pollution. One simple but powerful solution is the creation of buffer zones, wild green spaces, along waterways. By filling the areas along streams and rivers with lush growth of plants, the plants will extract nutrients from the water before it runs into the river, and use it for their own growth. The preservation and restoration of wetlands also has a similar effect, filtering nutrients out of the water, as plants use them for their own growth. By raising awareness of these issues, we can ultimately solve the problem of nutrient pollution.

Manure Spreaders - A Very Useful Piece of Agricultural Machinery

The first manure spreaders were designed in 1891 in the United States, and since wherefore they have been indispensable in the process of supplying crops or favorable soil quality with fertilizer or organic growing matter. What is more it is not unrivaled economical, but also environmentally - friendly way of manure disposal.

Types of manure spreaders

Typical spreaders look like trailers with rotating mechanisms, and are usually designed to be towed by tractors. The mechanism can be ground driven or require power - take - off. Smaller units can be pulled by compact tractors or even ATVs, and it is also possible to come across truck mounted spreaders. In the past spreaders were designed to be pulled by a horse and enabled to put down a thin layer of dried manure into fields. Nowadays, new and used machinery of that type can distribute not only solid waste but also liquid - based or slurry wastes.

Where to buy used manure spreaders?

When looking for used manure spreaders or other used agricultural machinery for sale, it is best to look through online classifieds. Specialist websites allow you to quickly locate available machinery in your area and go through numerous offers in a short time. If you prefer, you can also find a dealer close by or check the availability and cost of spare parts. The Internet is also a great source of information ( forums, blogs ) where you can find lots of advice from farmers and dealers on the models or brands you are interested in.

If you are patient and careful, you will definitely find some used agricultural machinery that could be as good as new, but much cheaper.

Modern Agricultural Techniques In India.

India is primarily an agriculture country dating back to more than ten thousand years. Today, India ranks the second largest in agricultural crop worldwide. Agriculture contributes approximately 33 percent of the Gross Tame Product and round about 70 percent of Indian population is engaged in agriculture sector. Most of the agricultural outputs including wheat, entertainment, coffee, cotton etc are exported to foreign countries contributing about 8. 56 percent of India? s exports. About 43 per cent of geographical land is used for agricultural life. India accounts world? s character one country in sugarcane and stood second rank in rice takings.

Modern Agricultural Techniques:

With years of practice in agriculture there have been new inventions and modern techniques adopted by farmers in agriculture To spread and encourage knowledge of agriculture among the youth generation, government has even launched new programmes and courses with specialization in agriculture Modern Agricultural comprises of improved farming techniques and the using of irrigation and high - yield grains resulting into increased production. The main drawback is being the inadequate monsoon, which accounts a crucial role in influencing agricultural production in India since most of the cropped area even now does not have any assured irrigation. Although measures are being undertaken by government authorities to eradicate the inadequacy of monsoon by introducing water dams and river project for effective irrigation.

In fact, India is facing the biggest challenge of producing enough food grains to cater the increasing population of India. Hence measures are been taken to expand farmland area and with quality grains the farmers are now able to produce double output in the same amount of land.

Farmers have adopted modern improved irrigation techniques that have the potential to increase agricultural production with improved farming techniques in areas that rely on monsoon also could improve yield. Moreover, improving the use of fertilizer, especially on rain fed land, also would help to increase the production. Government of India is trying a variety of plans and strategies with sophisticated water management techniques replacing the traditional farming practices.

Monoculture Farming - Disadvantages And Negative Effects On The Environment

The term monoculture in agriculture refers to the growing of a single crop over a great area. Monoculture is the norm in most mammoth - scale suit agriculture in the U. S. and in many parts of the world. Monoculture has certain short - term benefits, primarily in terms of economy of scale, and automation of the production process ( and accordingly reduction of labor costs ). However, in the long - term, the disadvantages of monoculture are hair-raising - this farming method has thick negative effects on the environment, and further, these negative effects doctor to become amplified over the long - whisk. This article weighs the pros and cons of this sort of uniform approach to agriculture, and points to some alternative practices that are more sustainable, both environmentally and economically, and thence superior on all counts in the long - scamper.

Pros and cons of monoculture farming: what are its advantages?

It is straightaway evident that I am not a aficionado of or backer for monoculture. But there are some direct and strongly compelling reasons that people engage in this destructive practice. Before we prattle about why this practice is so harmful, I find it fruitful to first examine its benefits or advantages.

The main advantage is economy of scale, primarily through automation. Especially in the U. S., labor costs are very high, so body that can shorten the use of labor in agriculture is highly likely to fruition in cost reserves. This is often true trim when the automation reduces yield per acre. For prototype, if a crop has been grown, it can often be harvested in different ways, with different levels of automation. Greater automation in harvesting might result in greater waste, such as grain left in the fields, but if it requires less labor ( such as one person driving a large machine which covers the ground very quickly, as opposed to several people driving smaller, slower machines, or many people harvesting the crop by hand ) it may be superior in a cost - benefit analysis, even if it results in greater waste.

Disadvantages of monoculture farming:

The most compelling disadvantage of monoculture farming is that it is not adaptable. Wild ecosystems are diverse, and wild populations of plants and animals are also diverse. An ecosystem contains numerous different species, each with unique adaptations to its environment, and distinct strengths and weaknesses in response to changing conditions. Similarly, the natural population of a plant or animal species has genetic variability, and each individual plant or animal has slightly different traits. Furthermore, each population, and the ecosystem as a whole, is constantly changing, adapting to the changing environmental conditions and the conditions imposed by the other populations and species in the system.

Monoculture smooths out this variability, destroying the diversity and replacing it with, at best, a single species, and at worst ( as is the norm in the U. S. ), a single cultivar - rows and rows of genetically identical crops, essentially cloned, reproduced through cuttings or genetically engineered seed stock.

Susceptibility to pests:

The ecological landscape of monoculture is that there is a massive range of genetically identical plants, against a backdrop of wild pests, which include fungi, bacteria, insects, and numerous other organisms. These pests each have a wild population with its own biodiversity, and their populations are constantly changing and adapting to being able to eat the crops or benefit from the presence of whatever crops are being grown. The monoculture crops, however, are not. changing, and are not able to adapt because they have no genetic variability and are not allowed to reproduce naturally. Plant pests, weeds, also adapt, seeding into the fields of crops, taking advantage of the extra sunlight, as most monoculture crops let through ample light and are not making full use of the sun ' s energy.

The only way to control pests in this setup is to expend ever - greater energy and resources on chemical control, either through the spraying of pesticides, fungicides, or bactericides on crops, or through the genetic engineering of crops to enable them to produce these chemicals themselves. But without the natural adaptation, pests will eventually evolve to resist any of these defenses. The setup of monoculture is inherently doomed, as it is working against the natural ways in which ecosystems work. It is completely unsustainable in the long - run.

Negative environmental impacts of monoculture:

Because monoculture farming requires ever - increasing levels of chemical inputs, the negative impacts on the environment are also continuously increasing. Although people often prefer to use safer chemicals when they exist, and use them in as low a concentration as possible, any safe chemical will necessarily eventually stop working. Many of the chemicals used in commercial agriculture are known to be toxic and / or carcinogenic, or have other negative impacts on humans. But even chemicals that are safe for human consumption or exposure can have negative impacts on the environment; for example, roundup, a widely used herbicide, is much more toxic to amphibians than it is to humans.

Other negative effects of monoculture:

Besides the negative environmental effects, monoculture also destroys our culture. Monoculture and large - scale factory farming is in large part responsible for or associated with the alienation of Americans from the practice of farming, and the move from an economy in which a large portion of people were directly involved in farming towards a society in which people see food as an industrial product to be purchased in a store, with little idea of where it comes from.

Beyond monoculture: how you can help protect the environment and food and farming culture:

The empire of factory farming and wide - scale monoculture is thankfully crumbling. You can do your part by learning more about gardening, by experimenting with growing some of your own food, even if you just have a small city yard, or even growing some indoors or on a porch or balcony if you do not have a yard. You can also explore farmer ' s markets with locally grown food, and encourage small - scale, local production, by diversified farming methods, by using your money to support these farmers. As we return to diversified agriculture, we will become more connected to our food, and help protect our environment as well.